selenemoongoddessfandomcom-20200213-history
Dionysus
Dionysus This article is about the Greco-Roman deity. For other uses of the names "Dionysus" and "Dionysos", see [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dionysos_(disambiguation) Dionysos (disambiguation)]. For other uses of the theophoric name "Dionysius", see [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dionysius_(disambiguation) Dionysius (disambiguation)]. '''Dionysus''' [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:IPA_for_English /][http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:IPA_for_English#Key d][http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:IPA_for_English#Key aɪ][http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:IPA_for_English#Key .][http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:IPA_for_English#Key ə][http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:IPA_for_English#Key ˈ][http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:IPA_for_English#Key n][http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:IPA_for_English#Key aɪ][http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:IPA_for_English#Key s][http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:IPA_for_English#Key ə][http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:IPA_for_English#Key s][http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:IPA_for_English /] [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Pronunciation_respelling_key ''dy-ə-'''ny'''-səs''] ([http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greek Ancient Greek]: Διόνυσος, ''Dionysos'') was the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/God_(male_deity) god] of the grape harvest, [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Winemaking winemaking] and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wine wine], of ritual madness and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religious_ecstasy ecstasy] in [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_mythology Greek mythology]. His name in [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_B Linear B] tablets shows he was worshipped from c. 1500—1100 BC by [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycenaean_civilization Mycenean Greeks]: other traces of Dionysian-type cult have been found in ancient [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minoan_Crete Minoan Crete].[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dionysus#cite_note-1 [2]] His origins are uncertain, and his cults took many forms; some are described by ancient sources as Thracian, others as Greek.[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dionysus#cite_note-2 [3]][http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dionysus#cite_note-3 [4]][http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dionysus#cite_note-4 [5]] In some cults, he arrives from the east, as an Asiatic foreigner; and in others, from [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethiopia Ethiopia] in the South. He is a god of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theophany epiphany], "the god that comes", and his "foreignness" as an arriving outsider-god may be inherent and essential to his cults. He is a major, popular figure of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_mythology Greek mythology] and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greek_religion religion], and is included in some lists of the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twelve_Olympians twelve Olympians]. His festivals were the driving force behind the development of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_theater Greek theater]. He is an example of a [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dying_god dying god].[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dionysus#cite_note-5 [6]][http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dionysus#cite_note-Burkert-6 [7]] The earliest cult images of Dionysus show a mature male, bearded and robed. He holds a [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferula fennel] staff, tipped with a pine-cone and known as a ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thyrsus thyrsus]''. Later images show him as a beardless, sensuous, naked or half-naked youth: the literature describes him as womanly or "man-womanish".[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dionysus#cite_note-7 [8]] In its fully developed form, his central cult imagery shows his triumphant, disorderly arrival or return, as if from some place beyond the borders of the known and civilized. His procession ''([http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thiasus thiasus])'' is made up of wild female followers ([http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maenads maenads]) and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ithyphallic ithyphallic], bearded [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satyrs satyrs]. Some are armed with the ''thyrsus'', some dance or play music. The god himself is drawn in a chariot, usually by exotic beasts such as lions or tigers, and is sometimes attended by a bearded, drunken [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silenus Silenus]. This procession is presumed to be the cult model for the human followers of his [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dionysian_Mysteries Dionysian Mysteries]. In his [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thrace Thracian] mysteries, he wears the ''bassaris'' or [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fox fox]-skin, symbolizing a new life. Dionysus is represented by city religions as the protector of those who do not belong to conventional society and thus symbolizes everything which is chaotic, dangerous and unexpected, everything which escapes human reason and which can only be attributed to the unforeseeable action of the gods.[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dionysus#cite_note-8 [9]] He was also known as '''Bacchus''' ( [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:IPA_for_English /][http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:IPA_for_English#Key ˈ][http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:IPA_for_English#Key b][http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:IPA_for_English#Key æ][http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:IPA_for_English#Key k][http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:IPA_for_English#Key ə][http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:IPA_for_English#Key s][http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:IPA_for_English /] or [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:IPA_for_English /][http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:IPA_for_English#Key ˈ][http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:IPA_for_English#Key b][http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:IPA_for_English#Key ɑː][http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:IPA_for_English#Key k][http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:IPA_for_English#Key ə][http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:IPA_for_English#Key s][http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:IPA_for_English /]; [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_language Greek]: Βάκχος, ''Bakkhos''), the name adopted by the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Rome Romans][http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dionysus#cite_note-9 [10]] and the frenzy he induces, ''bakkheia''. His ''thyrsus'' is sometimes wound with ivy and dripping with honey. It is a beneficent wand but also a weapon, and can be used to destroy those who oppose his cult and the freedoms he represents. He is also the Liberator (''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eleutherios Eleutherios]''), whose wine, music and ecstatic dance frees his followers from self-conscious fear and care, and subverts the oppressive restraints of the powerful. Those who partake in his mysteries are possessed and empowered by the god himself.[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dionysus#cite_note-10 [11]] His cult is also a "cult of the souls"; his maenads feed the dead through blood-offerings, and he acts as a divine communicant between the living and the dead.[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dionysus#cite_note-11 [12]] In Greek mythology, he is presented as a son of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zeus Zeus] and the mortal [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semele Semele], thus semi-divine or [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hero heroic]: and as son of Zeus and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persephone Persephone] or [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demeter Demeter], thus both fully divine, part-[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chthonic chthonic] and possibly identical with [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iacchus Iacchus] of the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eleusinian_Mysteries Eleusinian Mysteries]. Some scholars believe that Dionysus is a [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syncretism syncretism] of a local Greek nature deity and a more powerful god from [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thrace Thrace] or [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phrygia Phrygia] such as [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sabazios Sabazios][http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dionysus#cite_note-12 [13]] or [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zalmoxis Zalmoxis]. [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Titian_Bacchus_and_Ariadne.jpg ][http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Titian_Bacchus_and_Ariadne.jpg ]''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacchus_and_Ariadne Bacchus and Ariadne]'' by [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Titian Titian], at the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Gallery_(London) National Gallery] in London Etymology The name ''Dionysos'' is of uncertain significance. The ''dio-'' element has been associated since antiquity with ''Zeus'' ( [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genitive genitive] ''Dios''). The earliest attested form of the name is [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycenaean_Greek Mycenaean Greek] ''di-wo-nu-so'', written in [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_B Linear B] syllabic script, presumably for ''/Diwo(h)nūsos/'', found on two tablets at [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycenaean_Greece Mycenaean] [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pylos Pylos] and dated to the 12th or 13th century BC.[15][16] Later variants include ''Dionūsos'' and ''Diōnūsos'' in Boeotia; ''Dien(n)ūsos'' in Thessaly; ''Deonūsos'' and ''Deunūsos'' in Ionia; and ''Dinnūsos'' in Aeolia, besides other variants. A ''Dio-'' prefix is found in other names, such as that of the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dioscures Dioscures], and may derive from ''Dios'', the genitive of the name of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zeus Zeus].[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dionysus#cite_note-16 [17]] Janda (2010, following Peters 1989) sees the verbal stem of ''diemai'' "to chase, hurry, impel". The second element ''-nūsos'' is associated with Mount [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nysa_(mythology) Nysa], the birthplace of the god in Greek mythology, where he was nursed by nymphs (the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nysiads Nysiads]),[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dionysus#cite_note-17 [18]] but according to [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pherecydes_of_Syros Pherecydes of Syros], ''nũsa'' was an archaic word for "tree".[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dionysus#cite_note-18 [19]] The cult of Dionysus was closely associated with trees, specifically the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fig_tree fig tree], and some of his bynames exhibit this, such as ''Endendros'' "he in the tree" or ''Dendritēs'', "he of the tree". Peters suggests the original meaning as "he who runs among the trees", or that of a "runner in the woods". Janda (2010) accepts the etymology but proposes the more cosmological interpretation of "he who impels the (world-)tree." This interpretation explains how ''Nysa'' could have been re-interpreted from a meaning of "tree" to the name of a mountain: the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axis_mundi axis mundi] of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indo-European_mythology Indo-European mythology] is represented both as a [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World-tree world-tree] and as a [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World-mountain world-mountain].[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dionysus#cite_note-19 [20]] [[http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dionysus&action=edit&section=3 edit]] Epithets Dionysus was variably known with the following epithets: '''Acratophorus''', ("giver of unmixed wine"), at [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phigaleia Phigaleia] in [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arcadia Arcadia].[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dionysus#cite_note-20 [21]] '''Acroreites''' at [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sicyon Sicyon].[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dionysus#cite_note-21 [22]] '''Adoneus''' ("ruler") in his Latinised, Bacchic cult.[''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed citation needed]''] [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dionysus#cite_note-22 [23]] '''Aegobolus''' ("goat killer") at Potniae, in [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boeotia Boeotia].[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dionysus#cite_note-23 [24]] '''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dionysus_Aesymnetes Aesymnetes]''' ("ruler" or "lord") at Aroë and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patras Patrae] in [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Achaea Achaea]. '''Agrios''' ("wild"), in [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macedon Macedonia]. '''Bromios''' ("the thunderer" or "he of the loud shout"). '''Dendrites''' ("he of the trees"), as a fertility god. '''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dithyrambos Dithyrambos]''', form of address used at his festivals, referring to his premature birth. '''Eleutherios''' ("the liberator"), an epithet for both Dionysus and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eros_(god) Eros]. '''Endendros''' ("he in the tree"). [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dionysus#cite_note-24 [25]] '''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enorches Enorches]''' ("with balls",[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dionysus#cite_note-25 [26]] with reference to his fertility, or "in the testicles" in reference to Zeus' sewing the baby Dionysus into his thigh, i.e., his testicles).[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dionysus#cite_note-26 [27]] used in [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samos_Island Samos] and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lesbos Lesbos]. '''Erikryptos''' ("completely hidden"), in Macedonia. '''Evius''', in [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euripides Euripides]' play, ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Bacchae The Bacchae]''. '''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iacchus Iacchus]''', possibly an epithet of Dionysus and associated with the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eleusinian_Mysteries Eleusinian Mysteries]. In [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eleusis Eleusis], he is known as a son of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zeus Zeus] and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demeter Demeter]. The name "Iacchus" may come from the Ιακχος (''Iakchos''), a hymn sung in honor of Dionysus. '''Liknites''' ("he of the winnowing fan"), as a fertility god connected with the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greco-Roman_mysteries mystery religions]. A winnowing fan was used to separate the chaff from the grain. '''Lyaeus''' ("he who unties") or releases from care and anxiety. '''Melanaigis''' ("of the black goatskin") at the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apaturia Apaturia] festival. '''Oeneus''', as god of the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wine_press wine press]. '''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudanor Pseudanor]''' ("false man"), in [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macedon Macedonia]. In the Greek [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pantheon_(gods) pantheon], Dionysus (along with [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zeus Zeus]) absorbs the role of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sabazios Sabazios], a [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thracians Thracian]/[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phrygia Phrygian] deity. In the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_mythology Roman pantheon], Sabazius became an alternate name for Bacchus.[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dionysus#cite_note-27 [28]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Michelangelo_Bacchus.jpg ][http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Michelangelo_Bacchus.jpg ]"[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacchus_(Michelangelo) Bacchus]" by [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michelangelo Michelangelo] (1497) [[http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dionysus&action=edit&section=4 edit]] Mythology [[http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dionysus&action=edit&section=5 edit]] Birth The top course of this Roman sarcophagus shows Dionysus's birth. In the top center, the baby god comes out of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zeus Zeus]'s thigh.Dionysus had a strange birth that evokes the difficulty in fitting him into the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olympian_gods Olympian pantheon]. His mother was a mortal woman, [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semele Semele], the daughter of king [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cadmus Cadmus] of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Thebes_(Boeotia) Thebes], and his father was [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zeus Zeus], the king of the gods. Zeus' wife, [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hera Hera], discovered the affair while Semele was pregnant. Appearing as an old [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crone crone] (in other stories a nurse), Hera befriended Semele, who confided in her that Zeus was the actual father of the baby in her womb. Hera pretended not to believe her, and planted seeds of doubt in Semele's mind. Curious, Semele demanded of Zeus that he reveal himself in all his glory as proof of his godhood. Though Zeus begged her not to ask this, she persisted and he agreed. Therefore he came to her wreathed in bolts of lightning; mortals, however, could not look upon an undisguised god without dying, and she perished in the ensuing blaze. Zeus rescued the fetal Dionysus by sewing him into his thigh. A few months later, Dionysus was born on Mount Pramnos in the island of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ikaria Ikaria], where Zeus went to release the now-fully-grown baby from his thigh. In this version, Dionysus is born by two "mothers" (Semele and Zeus) before his birth, hence the epithet ''dimētōr'' (of two mothers) associated with his being "twice-born". In the Cretan version of the same story, which [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diodorus_Siculus Diodorus Siculus] follows,[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dionysus#cite_note-28 [29]] Dionysus was the son of Zeus and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persephone Persephone], the queen of the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_underworld Greek underworld]. Diodorus' sources equivocally identified the mother as Demeter.[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dionysus#cite_note-29 [30]] A jealous Hera again attempted to kill the child, this time by sending [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Titan_(mythology) Titans] to rip Dionysus to pieces after luring the baby with toys. It is said that he was mocked by the Titans who gave him a thyrsus (a fennel stalk) in place of his rightful sceptre.[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dionysus#cite_note-30 [31]] Zeus turned the Titans into dust with his thunderbolts, but only after the Titans ate everything but the heart, which was saved, variously, by [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athena Athena], [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhea_(mythology) Rhea], or [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demeter Demeter]. Zeus used the heart to recreate him in his [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thigh thigh], hence he was again "the twice-born". Other versions claim that Zeus recreated him in the womb of Semele, or gave Semele the heart to eat to impregnate her. The rebirth in both versions of the story is the primary reason why Dionysus was worshipped in [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greco-Roman_mysteries mystery religions], as his death and rebirth were events of mystical reverence. This narrative was apparently used in several Greek and Roman cults, and variants of it are found in [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Callimachus Callimachus] and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonnus Nonnus], who refer to this Dionysus with the title [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zagreus Zagreus], and also in several fragmentary poems attributed to [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orpheus Orpheus].[''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed citation needed]''] The myth of the dismemberment of Dionysus by the Titans, is alluded to by Plato in his Phaedo (69d) in which Socrates claims that the initiations of the Dionysian Mysteries are similar to those of the philosophic path. Late Neo-Platonists such as [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Damascius Damascius] explore the implications of this at length.[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dionysus#cite_note-31 [32]] [[http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dionysus&action=edit&section=6 edit]] Infancy at Mount Nysa ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermes_and_the_Infant_Dionysus Hermes and the Infant Dionysus]'' by [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Praxiteles Praxiteles], ([http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaeological_Museum_of_Olympia Archaeological Museum of Olympia])According to the myth Zeus gave the infant Dionysus into the charge of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermes Hermes]. One version of the story is that Hermes took the boy to King [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athamas Athamas] and his wife [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ino_(Greek_mythology) Ino], Dionysus' aunt. Hermes bade the couple raise the boy as a girl, to hide him from Hera's wrath.[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dionysus#cite_note-32 [33]] Another version is that Dionysus was taken to the rain-[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nymph nymphs] of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nysa_(mythology) Nysa], who nourished his infancy and childhood, and for their care Zeus rewarded them by placing them as the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyades_(mythology) Hyades] among the stars (see [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyades_(star_cluster) Hyades star cluster]). Other versions have Zeus giving him to Rhea, or to Persephone to raise in the Underworld, away from Hera. Alternatively, he was raised by [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maro Maro]. Dionysus in Greek mythology is a god of foreign origin, and while Mount Nysa is a mythological location, it is invariably set far away to the east or to the south. The [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homeric_hymn Homeric hymn] to Dionysus places it "far from Phoenicia, near to the Egyptian stream". Others placed it in Anatolia, or in [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Libya Libya] ('away in the west beside a great ocean'), in Ethiopia (Herodotus), or [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabia Arabia] (Diodorus Siculus). According to [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herodotus Herodotus]: As it is, the Greek story has it that no sooner was Dionysus born than Zeus sewed him up in his thigh and carried him away to [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nysa_(mythology) Nysa] in Ethiopia beyond [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egypt Egypt]; and as for [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pan_(mythology) Pan], the Greeks do not know what became of him after his birth. It is therefore plain to me that the Greeks learned the names of these two gods later than the names of all the others, and trace the birth of both to the time when they gained the knowledge.—Herodotus, ''Histories'' 2.146[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollodorus Apollodorus] seems to be following Pherecydes, who relates how the infant Dionysus, god of the grapevine, was nursed by the rain-nymphs, the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyades_(mythology) Hyades] at Nysa. [[http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dionysus&action=edit&section=7 edit]] Childhood [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kylix_(drinking_cup) Kylix] (6th century BC) depicting Dionysus among the sailors transformed to dolphins after attempting to kidnap himWhen Dionysus grew up, he discovered the culture of the vine and the mode of extracting its precious juice; but Hera struck him with madness, and drove him forth a wanderer through various parts of the earth. In [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phrygia Phrygia] the goddess [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cybele Cybele], better known to the Greeks as Rhea, cured him and taught him her religious rites, and he set out on a progress through Asia teaching the people the cultivation of the vine. The most famous part of his wanderings is his expedition to [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India India], which is said to have lasted several years. Returning in triumph he undertook to introduce his worship into Greece, but was opposed by some princes who dreaded its introduction on account of the disorders and madness it brought with it (e.g. [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pentheus Pentheus] or [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lycurgus_of_Thrace Lycurgus]). North African Roman mosaic: Panther-Dionysus scatters the pirates, who are changed to dolphins, except for [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acoetes Acoetes], the helmsman. ([http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bardo_National_Museum Bardo National Museum])Dionysus was exceptionally attractive. One of the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homeric_hymns Homeric hymns] recounts how, while disguised as a mortal sitting beside the seashore, a few sailors spotted him, believing he was a prince. They attempted to kidnap him and sail him far away to sell for ransom or into slavery. They tried to bind him with ropes, but no type of rope could hold him. Dionysus turned into a fierce lion and unleashed a bear onboard, killing those he came into contact with. Those who jumped off the ship were mercifully turned into dolphins. The only survivor was the helmsman, [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acoetes Acoetes], who recognized the god and tried to stop his sailors from the start.[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dionysus#cite_note-33 [34]] In a similar story, Dionysus desired to sail from [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Icaria Icaria] to [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naxos_(island) Naxos]. He then hired a [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tyrrhenians Tyrrhenian] pirate ship. However, when the god was on board, they sailed not to Naxos but to Asia, intending to sell him as a slave. So Dionysus turned the mast and oars into snakes, and filled the vessel with ivy and the sound of flutes so that the sailors went mad and, leaping into the sea, were turned into dolphins. [[http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dionysus&action=edit&section=8 edit]] Other stories [[http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dionysus&action=edit&section=9 edit]] Midas Once, Dionysus found his old school master and foster father, [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silenus Silenus], missing. The old man had been drinking, and had wandered away drunk, and was found by some peasants, who carried him to their king (alternatively, he passed out in Midas' rose garden). [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Midas Midas] recognized him, and treated him hospitably, entertaining him for ten days and nights with politeness, while Silenus entertained Midas and his friends with stories and songs. On the eleventh day, he brought Silenus back to Dionysus. Dionysus offered Midas his choice of whatever reward he wanted. Midas asked that whatever he might touch should be changed into gold. Dionysus consented, though was sorry that he had not made a better choice. Midas rejoiced in his new power, which he hastened to put to the test. He touched and turned to gold an oak twig and a stone. Overjoyed, as soon as he got home, he ordered the servants to set a feast on the table. Then he found that his bread, meat, daughter and wine turned to gold. Upset, Midas strove to divest himself of his power (the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Midas_Touch Midas Touch]); he hated the gift he had coveted. He prayed to Dionysus, begging to be delivered from starvation. Dionysus heard and consented; he told Midas to wash in the river [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pactolus Pactolus]. He did so, and when he touched the waters the power passed into them, and the river sands changed into gold. This was an [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etiological_myth etiological myth] that explained why the sands of the Pactolus were rich in gold. [[http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dionysus&action=edit&section=10 edit]] Pentheus Pentheus torn apart by Agave and Ino. Attic red-figure ''lekanis'' (cosmetics bowl) lid, ca. 450-425 BCE (Louvre)[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euripides Euripides] composed a tragedy about the destructive nature of Dionysus in ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Bacchae The Bacchae]''. Since Euripides wrote this play while in the court of King [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archelaus_I_of_Macedon Archelaus] of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macedon Macedon], some scholars believe that the cult of Dionysus was malicious in Macedon but benign in [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athens Athens]. In the play, Dionysus returns to his birthplace, [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thebes_(Greece) Thebes], which is ruled by his cousin [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pentheus Pentheus]. Dionysus wants to exact revenge on Pentheus and the women of Thebes (his aunts [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agave_(mythology) Agave], [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ino_(Greek_mythology) Ino] and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autonoe Autonoe]) for not believing his mother Semele's claims of being impregnated by Zeus, and for denying Dionysus's divinity (and therefore not worshiping him). Dionysus slowly drives Pentheus mad, lures him to the woods of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Cithaeron Mount Cithaeron], and then convinces him to spy/peek on the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maenads Maenads] (female worshippers of Dionysus, who often experienced divine ecstasy). The Maenads are in an insane frenzy when Pentheus sees them (earlier in the play they had ripped apart a herd of cattle), and they catch him but mistake him for a wild animal. Pentheus is torn to shreds, and his mother (Agave, one of the Maenads), not recognizing her own son because of her madness, brutally tears his limbs off as he begs for his life. As a result of their acts the women are banished from Thebes, ensuring Dionysus's revenge. [[http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dionysus&action=edit&section=11 edit]] Lycurgus When King [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lycurgus_of_Thrace Lycurgus] of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thrace Thrace] heard that Dionysus was in his kingdom, he imprisoned all the followers of Dionysus; the god fled, taking refuge with [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thetis Thetis], and sent a drought which stirred the people into revolt. Dionysus then made King Lycurgus insane, having him slice his own son into pieces with an axe, thinking he was a patch of ivy, a plant holy to Dionysus. An [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oracle oracle] then claimed that the land would stay dry and barren as long as Lycurgus was alive, so his people had him [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drawn_and_quartered drawn and quartered]; with Lycurgus dead, Dionysus lifted the curse. This story was told in Homer's epic, ''Iliad'' 6.136-7. In an alternative version, sometimes shown in art, Lycurgus tried to kill Ambrosia, a follower of Dionysus, who was transformed into a vine that twined around the enraged king and restrained him, eventually killing him.[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dionysus#cite_note-34 [35]] [[http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dionysus&action=edit&section=12 edit]] Prosymnus A better-known story is that of his descent to Hades to rescue his mother Semele, whom he placed among the stars. [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dionysus#cite_note-35 [36]] He made the descent from a reputedly bottomless pool on the coast of the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argolid Argolid] near the prehistoric site of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lerna Lerna]. He was guided by [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prosymnus Prosymnus] or Polymnus, who requested, as his reward, to be Dionysus' lover. Prosymnus died before Dionysus could honor his pledge, so in order to satisfy Prosymnus' shade, Dionysus fashioned a [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phallus phallus] from an olive branch and sat on it at Prosymnus' tomb.[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dionysus#cite_note-36 [37]] This story survives in full only in Christian sources whose aim was to discredit pagan mythology. It appears to have served as an explanation of the secret objects that were revealed in the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dionysian_Mysteries Dionysian Mysteries].[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dionysus#cite_note-37 [38]] [[http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dionysus&action=edit&section=13 edit]] Ampelos Another myth according to [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonnus Nonnus] involves [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ampelos Ampelos], a [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satyr satyr]. Foreseen by Dionysus, the youth was killed in an accident riding a bull maddened by the sting of an [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/At%C3%AB Ate]'s gadfly. The [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moirae Fates] granted Ampelos a second life as a vine, from which Dionysus squeezed the first wine.[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dionysus#cite_note-38 [39]] [[http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dionysus&action=edit&section=14 edit]] Chiron Young Dionysus was also said to have been one of the many famous pupils of the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centaur centaur] [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chiron Chiron]. According to Ptolemy Chennus in the Library of Photius, "Dionysius was loved by Chiron, from whom he learned chants and dances, the bacchic rites and initiations."[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dionysus#cite_note-39 [40]] [[http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dionysus&action=edit&section=15 edit]] Secondary myths ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacchus_and_Ariadne Bacchus and Ariadne]'' by [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Titian Titian], at the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Gallery_(London) National Gallery] in LondonWhen [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hephaestus Hephaestus] bound [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hera Hera] to a magical chair, Dionysus got him drunk and brought her back to Olympus after he passed out. A third descent by Dionysus to Hades is invented by [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristophanes Aristophanes] in his comedy ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Frogs The Frogs]''. Dionysus, as patron of the Athenian dramatic festival, the ''Dionysia'', wants to bring back to life one of the great tragedians. After a competition [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aeschylus Aeschylus] is chosen in preference to [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euripides Euripides]. When [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theseus Theseus] abandoned [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ariadne Ariadne] sleeping on Naxos, Dionysus found and married her. She bore him a son named Oenopion, but he committed suicide or was killed by [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perseus Perseus]. In some variants, he had her crown put into the heavens as the constellation Corona; in others, he descended into [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hades Hades] to restore her to the gods on Olympus. Another different account claims Dionysus ordered Theseus to abandon Ariadne on the island of Naxos for he had seen her as Theseus carried her onto the ship and had decided to marry her. [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_mythology Callirrhoe] was a [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calydon Calydonian] woman who scorned a priest of Dionysus who threatened to afflict all the women of Calydon with insanity (see [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maenad Maenad]). The priest was ordered to sacrifice Callirhoe but he killed himself instead. Callirhoe threw herself into a well which was later named after her. [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acis Acis], a [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sicily Sicilian] youth, was sometimes said to be Dionysus' son. [[http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dionysus&action=edit&section=16 edit]] Consorts and children # [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aphrodite Aphrodite] ## [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charites Charites] (Graces) ### [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pasithea Pasithea] ### [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euphrosyne_(mythology) Euphrosyne] ### [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thalia_(grace) Thalia] ## [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Priapus Priapus] ## [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hymenaios Hymenaios] # [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ariadne Ariadne] ## [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oenopion Oenopion] ## [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Staphylus Staphylus] ## [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thoas_(Tauri_king) Thoas] ## [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peparethus Peparethus] ## Phanus ## Eurymedon ## Euanthes ## Latramys ## Tauropolis ## Ceramus ## Maron # [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nyx_(mythology) Nyx] ## [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phthonus Phthonus] # [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Althaea_(mythology) Althaea] ## [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deianeira Deianeira] # [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circe Circe] ## [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comus Comus] # [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aura_(mythology) Aura] ## [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iacchus Iacchus] ## twin of Iacchus, killed by Aura instantly upon birth # [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicaea_(mythology) Nicaea] ## [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telete Telete] # Araethyrea or [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chthonophyle Chthonophyle] (or again Ariadne) ## [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phlias Phlias] # [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physcoa Physcoa] ## Narcaeus # [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pallene_(mythology) Pallene] # [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carya_(daughter_of_Dion) Carya] # [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alphesiboea Alphesiboea] ## Medus [[http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dionysus&action=edit&section=17 edit]] Parallels with Christianity Main article: [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jesus_Christ_in_comparative_mythology Jesus Christ in comparative mythology]The earliest discussions of mythological parallels between Dionysus and the figure of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jesus the Christ] in [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_theology Christian theology] can be traced to [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich_H%C3%B6lderlin Friedrich Hölderlin], whose identification of Dionysus with Christ is most explicit in ''Brod und Wein'' (1800–1801) and ''Der Einzige'' (1801–1803).[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dionysus#cite_note-40 [41]] Modern scholars such as [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Hengel Martin Hengel], [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barry_B._Powell Barry Powell], and Peter Wick, among others, argue that Dionysian religion and Christianity have notable parallels. They point to the symbolism of wine and the importance it held in the mythology surrounding both Dionysus and Jesus Christ;[42][43] though, Wick argues that the use of wine symbolism in the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gospel_of_John Gospel of John], including the story of the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marriage_at_Cana Marriage at Cana] at which Jesus turns [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water water] into wine, was intended to show Jesus as superior to Dionysus.[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dionysus#cite_note-Wick_2004_179.E2.80.93198-43 [44]] Scholars of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparative_mythology comparative mythology] identify both Dionysus and Jesus with the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life-death-rebirth_deity dying-and-returning god] mythological [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archetype archetype].[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dionysus#cite_note-Burkert-6 [7]] Other elements, such as the celebration by a ritual meal of bread and wine, also have parallels.[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dionysus#cite_note-Powell-44 [45]] Powell, in particular, argues precursors to the Christian notion of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transubstantiation transubstantiation] can be found in Dionysian religion.[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dionysus#cite_note-Powell-44 [45]] Another parallel can be seen in ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Bacchae The Bacchae]'' where Dionysus appears before King Pentheus on charges of claiming divinity which is compared to the New Testament scene of Jesus being interrogated by Pontius Pilate. [44][45][46] E. Kessler in a symposium ''Pagan Monotheism in the Roman Empire'', Exeter, 17–20 July 2006, states that Dionysian cult had developed into strict [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monotheism monotheism] by the 4th century CE; together with [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mithraism Mithraism] and other sects the cult formed an instance of "pagan monotheism" in direct competition with [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Christianity Early Christianity] during [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Antiquity Late Antiquity].[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dionysus#cite_note-46 [47]] [[http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dionysus&action=edit&section=18 edit]] Symbolism [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satyr Satyr] giving a [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grapevine grapevine] to Bacchus as a child; [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cameo_glass cameo glass], first half of the 1st century AD; from ItalyThe [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bull_(mythology) bull], the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serpent_(symbolism) serpent], the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ivy ivy] and the wine are the signs of the characteristic Dionysian atmosphere, and Dionysus is strongly associated with [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satyr satyrs], [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centaur centaurs], and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silenus sileni]. He is often shown riding a [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leopard leopard], wearing a leopard skin, or in a chariot drawn by [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panther_(legendary_creature) panthers], and may also be recognized by the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thyrsus thyrsus] he carries. Besides the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitis grapevine] and its wild barren alter-ego, the toxic ivy plant, both sacred to him, the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ficus fig] was also his symbol. The [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinecone pinecone] that tipped his thyrsus linked him to [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cybele Cybele]. The [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dionysia Dionysia] and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lenaia Lenaia] festivals in [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athens Athens] were dedicated to Dionysus. Initiates worshipped him in the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dionysian_Mysteries Dionysian Mysteries], which were comparable to and linked with the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orphic_Mysteries Orphic Mysteries], and may have influenced [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gnosticism Gnosticism][''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed citation needed]'']. Orpheus was said to have invented the Mysteries of Dionysus.[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dionysus#cite_note-Apollodorus1.3.2-47 [48]] Dionysus was another god of resurrection who was strongly linked to the bull. In a cult hymn from [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olympia,_Greece Olympia], at a festival for Hera, Dionysus is invited to come as a bull; "with bull-foot raging." [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter_Burkert Walter Burkert] relates, "Quite frequently [Dionysus] is portrayed with bull horns, and in [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kyzikos Kyzikos] he has a tauromorphic image," and refers also to an archaic myth in which Dionysus is slaughtered as a bull calf and impiously eaten by the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Titan_(mythology) Titans].[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dionysus#cite_note-Burkert-6 [7]] In the Classical period of Greece, the bull and other animals identified with deities were separated from them as their ''agalma'', a kind of heraldic show-piece that concretely signified their numinous presence.[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dionysus#cite_note-Burkert-6 [7]] [[http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dionysus&action=edit&section=19 edit]] Bacchanalia ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacchus_(Caravaggio) Bacchus]'' by [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michelangelo_Merisi Caravaggio]Main article: [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacchanalia Bacchanalia]Introduced into [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rome Rome] (c. 200 BC) from the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magna_Graecia Greek culture of southern Italy] or by way of Greek-influenced [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etruria Etruria], the bacchanalia were held in secret and attended by women only, in the grove of Simila, near the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aventine_Hill Aventine Hill], on March 16 and 17. Subsequently, admission to the rites was extended to men and celebrations took place five times a month. The mystery-cult may have been seen as a threat to the political status quo. The notoriety of these festivals, where many kinds of crimes and political conspiracies were supposed to be planned, led to a decree by the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Senate Senate] in 186 BC — the so-called ''Senatus consultum de Bacchanalibus'', inscribed on a bronze tablet discovered in [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calabria Calabria] (1640), now in [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vienna Vienna] — by which the Bacchanalia were prohibited throughout all Italy except in special cases that required specific approval by the Senate. In spite of the severe punishment inflicted on those found in violation of this decree, the Bacchanalia were not stamped out, at any rate in the south of Italy, for a very long time. Dionysus is equated with both '''Bacchus''' and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liber Liber] (also ''Liber Pater''). Liber ("the free one") was a god of male fertility, wine, and growth, whose female counterpart was [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Libera_(mythology) Libera]. His festival was the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberalia_(holiday) Liberalia], celebrated on March 17, but in some myths the festival was also held on March 5. [[http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dionysus&action=edit&section=20 edit]] In art Main article: [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacchic_art Bacchic art] "[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacchus_(Michelangelo) Bacchus]" by [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michelangelo Michelangelo] (1497) [[http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dionysus&action=edit&section=21 edit]] Classical The god appeared on many [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krater kraters] and other wine vessels from [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greece classical Greece]. His iconography became more complex in the Hellenistic period, between severe archaising or [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neo_Attic Neo Attic] types such as the Dionysus Sardanapalus and types showing him as an indolent and androgynous young man and often shown [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nude nude] (see the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Dionysus_and_Eros.jpg Dionysus and Eros], [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naples_National_Archaeological_Museum Naples Archeological Museum]). The 4th century [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lycurgus_Cup Lycurgus Cup] in the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Museum British Museum] is a spectacular [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cage_cup cage cup] which changes colour when light comes through the glass; it shows the bound King [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lycurgus_(Thrace) Lycurgus (Thrace)] being taunted by the god and attacked by a satyr. Elizabeth Kessler has theorized that a mosaic appearing on the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triclinium triclinium] floor of the House of Aion in [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nea_Paphos Nea Paphos], Cyprus, details a monotheistic worship of Dionysus.[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dionysus#cite_note-48 [49]] In the mosaic, other gods appear but may only be lesser representations of the centrally imposed Dionysus. [[http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dionysus&action=edit&section=22 edit]] Modern views Dionysus has remained an inspiration to artists, philosophers and writers into the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modern_era modern era]. In ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Birth_of_Tragedy The Birth of Tragedy]'' (1872), the German philosopher [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche Friedrich Nietzsche] contrasted [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollonian_and_Dionysian Dionysus with the god Apollo] as a symbol of the fundamental, unrestrained [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aesthetic aesthetic] principle of force, music, and intoxication versus the principle of sight, form, and beauty represented by the latter. Nietzsche also claimed that the oldest forms of Greek Tragedy were entirely based on suffering of Dionysus. Nietzsche continued to contemplate the character of Dionysus, which he revisited in the final pages of his 1886 work ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beyond_Good_and_Evil Beyond Good and Evil]''. This reconceived [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nietzschean Nietzschean] Dionysus was invoked as an embodiment of the central [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Will_to_power will to power] concept in Nietzsche's later works ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Twilight_of_the_Idols The Twilight of the Idols]'', ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Antichrist_(book) The Antichrist]'' and ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecce_Homo Ecce Homo]''. [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%A1roly_Ker%C3%A9nyi Károly Kerényi], a scholar in [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_philology classical philology] and one of the founders of modern studies in [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_mythology Greek mythology] characterized Dionysus as representative of the psychological life force (Zoê).[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dionysus#cite_note-49 [50]] Other scholars proposing psychological interpretations have placed Dionysus' [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotionality emotionality] in the foreground by focusing on the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joy joy], [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terror terror] or [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hysteria hysteria] associated with the god.[51][52][53][54][55] The [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russians Russian] [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poet poet] and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosopher philosopher] [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vyacheslav_Ivanovich_Ivanov Vyacheslav Ivanov] elaborated the theory of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dionysianism Dionysianism], which traces the roots of literary art in general and the art of tragedy in particular to ancient Dionysian mysteries. His views were expressed in the treatises ''The Hellenic Religion of the Suffering God'' (1904), and ''Dionysus and Early Dionysianism'' (1921). Inspired by [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Frazer James Frazer], some have labeled Dionysus a [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life-death-rebirth_deity life-death-rebirth deity]. The mythographer [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Kerenyi Karl Kerenyi] devoted much energy to Dionysus over his long career; he summed up his thoughts in ''Dionysos: Archetypal Image of Indestructible Life'' (Bollingen, Princeton, 1976). Dionysus is the main character of Aristophanes' play ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Frogs The Frogs]'', later updated to a [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Frogs_(musical) modern version] by [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burt_Shevelove Burt Shevelove] (libretto) and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Sondheim Stephen Sondheim] (music and lyrics) ("The time is the present. The place is ancient Greece. ... "). In the play, Dionysus and his slave Xanthius venture to Hades to bring a famed writer back from the dead, with the hopes that the writer's presence in the world will fix all nature of earthly problems. In Aristophanes' play, [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euripides Euripides] competes against Aeschylus to be recovered from the underworld; In Sondheim and Shevelove's, [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Bernard_Shaw George Bernard Shaw] faces [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Shakespeare William Shakespeare]. The Romanised equivalent of Dionysus was referenced in the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1852_in_literature 1852] [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-Tom_literature plantation literature] novel ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aunt_Phillis%27s_Cabin Aunt Phillis's Cabin]'', which featured a character named Uncle Bacchus, who was so-named due to his excessive [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcoholism alcoholism]. Both [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eddie_Campbell Eddie Campbell] and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grant_Morrison Grant Morrison] have utilised the character. Morrison claims that the myth of Dionysus provides the inspiration for his violent and explicit graphic novel ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kill_Your_Boyfriend Kill Your Boyfriend]'', whilst Campbell used the character in his ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacchus_(comics) Deadface]'' series to explore both the conventions of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Super-hero super-hero] [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comic_books comic books] and artistic endeavour. Dionysus is one of the central myths explored in the 2011 [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Weaponized&action=edit&redlink=1 Weaponized] anthology [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The_Immanence_of_Myth&action=edit&redlink=1 The Immanence of Myth]. [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dionysus#cite_note-55 [56]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walt_Disney Walt Disney] has depicted the character on a number of occasions. The first such portrayal of Dionysus, as the Roman Bacchus, was in the "[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pastoral Pastoral]" segment of Walt Disney's third classic ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fantasia_(film) Fantasia]''. In keeping with the more fun-loving Roman god, he is portrayed as an overweight, happily drunk man wearing a [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tunic tunic] and cloak, [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grape_leaves grape leaves] on his head, carrying a [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goblet goblet] of wine, and riding a drunken donkey named Jacchus ("[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donkey jackass]"). He is friends with the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fauns fauns] and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centaurs centaurs], and is shown celebrating a harvest festival. Other portrayals have appeared in both the Disney [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hercules_(1997_film) movie] and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hercules:_The_Animated_Series spin-off TV series] of Hercules. He was depicted as an overweight drunkard as opposed to his youthful descriptions in myths. He has bright pink skin and rosy red cheeks hinting at his drunkenness. He always carries either a bottle or glass of wine in his hand, and like in the myths, wears a wreath of grape leaves upon his head. In the series he is known by his Roman name "Bacchus", and in one episode headlines his own festival known as the "Bacchanal". In music Dionysius (together with [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demeter Demeter]) was used as an archetype for the character Tori by contemporary artist [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tori_Amos Tori Amos] in her 2007 album ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Doll_Posse American Doll Posse]'', and the Canadian rock band [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rush_(band) Rush] refer to a confrontation and hatred between Dionysus and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo Apollo] in the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cygnus_X-1_duology Cygnus X-1 duology]. Dionysus along with [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lilith Lilith] are central characters in [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Curcio James Curcio]'s 2011 novel Fallen Nation: Party At The World's End. In literature, Dionysius has proven equally inspiring. [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rick_Riordan Rick Riordan]'s series of books ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Percy_Jackson_%26_The_Olympians Percy Jackson & The Olympians]'' presents Dionysus as an uncaring, childish and spoilt god who as a punishment has to work in Camp Half-Blood. In [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fred_Saberhagen Fred Saberhagen]'s 2001 novel, ''God of the Golden Fleece,'' a young man in a post-apocalyptic world picks up an ancient piece of technology shaped in the likeness of the Dionysus. Here, Dionysus is depicted as a relatively weak god, albeit a subversive one whose powers are able to undermine the authority of tyrants. A version of Bacchus also appears in [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C._S._Lewis C. S. Lewis]' [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prince_Caspian Prince Caspian], part of ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Chronicles_of_Narnia The Chronicles of Narnia]''. Lewis depicts him as dangerous-looking, androgynous young boy who helps Aslan awaken the spirits of the Narnian trees and rivers. He does not appear in the 2008 film version. In 2009 the poet [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Howarth Stephen Howarth] and veteran theatre producer Andrew Hobbs collaborated on a play entitled ''Bacchus in Rehab'' with Dionysus as the central character. The authors describe the piece as "combining highbrow concept and lowbrow humour".[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dionysus#cite_note-56 [57]] The second season of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/True_Blood True Blood] involves a plot line wherein a [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maenad maenad], Maryann, causes mayhem in the Louisiana town of Bon Temps in attempt to summon Dionysus.=